Ambassadors

Analyzes the original constitutional plan for the U.S. Supreme court and lower courts drawing on numerous primary, founding-era sources. Argues that part of the ambassador clause’s goal was to promote international peace and harmony.

Looks to the framing and constitutional convention to analyze the original meaning of the word “all” in Article III. Contends that “all” means the same thing when used in the admiralty, federal question, ambassador, and state-as-a-party clauses in Article III. 

Argues that the structure of the Constitution confers independent adjudicatory authority on the judiciary, beyond simply what the jurisdiction and tenure provisions provide.

Contrasts the constitutional provisions conferring power to the judiciary to those conferring power to the legislative and executive branches. Argues, in part, that the enumeration of different cases, such as that involving ambassadors, displays that the judicial power extends to these types of cases; they are the “object” of the judicial power.